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Fundamental Mathematics

  • 1 fundamental theorem

    (Mathematics) n.
    Hauptsatz (Mathematik) m.

    English-german dictionary > fundamental theorem

  • 2 fundamental points

    அடிப்படைப் புள்ளிகள்

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental points

  • 3 fundamental theorem

    அடிப்படைத் தேற்றம்

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental theorem

  • 4 fundamental theorem of algebra

    இயற்கணிதத்தின் அடிப்படைத் தேற்றம்

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental theorem of algebra

  • 5 fundamental

    /,fʌndə'mentl/ * tính từ - cơ bản, cơ sở, chủ yếu =fundamental rules+ những quy tắc cơ bản - (âm nhạc) gốc =fundamental note+ nốt gốc * danh từ, (thường) số nhiều - quy tắc cơ bản; nguyên tắc cơ bản =the fundamentals of mathematics+ những quy tắc cơ bản của toán học - (âm nhạc) nốt gốc

    English-Vietnamese dictionary > fundamental

  • 6 fundamental units

    I
    அடிப்படையலகுகள்
    II
    முதலலகுகள்
    அடிப்படையலகுகள்

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental units

  • 7 fundamental operation

    I
    அடிப்படைச் செயல்
    II
    அடிப்படைச்செய்கை

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental operation

  • 8 fundamental

    I
    அடிந்ிலை
    II
    பண்டாக, பண்டானது, பண்ன
    அடிப்படையான
    IV
    அடிப்படையான
    V
    முதன்மையான
    VI
    அடிப்படையான
    அடிப்படை
    அடிப்படை
    IX
    அடித்தளத்துக்குறிய, அடித்தளத்தின், அடிப்படை,
    X
    அடிப்படை
    XI
    அடிப்படை
    அடிப்படை
    அடிப்படை
    அடிப்படை
    XV
    அடிப்படையான
    அடிப்படையான
    அடிநிலை
    பண்டாக
    பண்டானது
    XX
    பண்ன

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental

  • 9 fundamental frequency

    I
    அடிப்படை அதிர்வெண்
    II
    முதலதிர்வெண்
    அடிப்படை அலைவெண்
    IV
    முதலதிர்வெண்

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental frequency

  • 10 fundamental unit

    I
    அடிப்படை அலகு
    II
    அடிப்படை அலகு
    அடிப்படை அலகு

    English-Tamil dictionary > fundamental unit

  • 11 cardinal, fundamental

    முதலான

    English-Tamil dictionary > cardinal, fundamental

  • 12 FM

    1) Общая лексика: УКВ радиостанция (термин "радио" означает у водителей средние волны)
    2) Компьютерная техника: Frontend Magic, быстродействующая память (fast memory), быстродействующее запоминающее устройство
    3) Американизм: Farm To Market
    4) Спорт: Flyball Master
    6) Минералогия: fused magnesia
    8) Сельское хозяйство: farmyard manure
    9) Шутливое выражение: Fun Monkey
    10) Страхование: Factory Mutual System
    11) Автомобильный термин: fan motor program in PCM
    12) Грубое выражение: Fucking Magic, Fucking Mercury
    14) Политика: Federated States of Micronesia
    16) Телевидение: frequency generator
    17) Телекоммуникации: Function Management
    18) Сокращение: Fabricaciones Militares (Argentina), Field Manual (USA), Field Marshal (British Army), Flight Mishap (see also FRM), Folding Money, Foreign Minister, Titanium tetrachloride (Chemical warfare smoke mixture), field manual, fire main, fulminate of mercury, manufacturer's responsibility, (Federated States of) Micronesia, FIDE Master (chess), Facial Myokymia, Facility Management, Facility Manager, Facility Map (FAA ARTCC mapping of areas to a facility), Facility Module, Facing Matter, Factory Model, Factory Mutual, Failure Mode, Fairbanks-Morse, Family Medicine, Family Member (AUXMIS), Family Room, Fan Marker, Farm to Market (secondary road, Texas), Fast Messages, Fat Man (atomic bomb), Faulkner Mazda (Pennsylvania), Fault Management, February, March (budget times in Indian states), Fecal Matter, Fecit Monumentum (Latin: Built A Monument, epigraphy), Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, Federated States of Micronesia (US postal abbreviation), Femtometer (10 E^-15, one quadrillionth of a meter), Ferdinand Marcos, Ferromagnetic, Fetal Movement, Fibromyalgia, Fibrosing Mediastinitis, Fibrous Monolith, Field Marshal, File Maintenance, Filio Mater (Latin: Mother to Her Son, epigraphy), Filio Morenti (Latin: To His/Her Dying Son, epigraphy), Filius Matri (Latin: Son to His Mother, epigraphy), Filosofian Maisteri (Finnish: masters degree), Finance Manager, Finance Memorandum, Financial Manager, Financial Minister, Finished Machined, Fire Marshall, Fire Mission, Fireman, Fiscal Management, Fish Meal, Fissile Material, Fleetwood Mac (band), Flight Model, Flogging Molly (band), Floor Manager, Flow Manufacturing, Flow Meter, Flying Monkeys, Follow Me, Font Metrics, Football Manager (computer game), Force Main (civil/hydraulic engineering), Force Majeure (French: Greater Force), Force Management, Force Modernization, Force Module, Forest Management, Formal Method(s), Format, Fort Minor (band), Fort Myers (Florida), Forum Moderator (message boards), Fox Mulder (X-Files character), Franklin Mint, Freaking Magic (polite form), Freddie Mercury (Queen lead singer), Free Market, Frequency Management, Frequency Modulate, Frequency Multiplier (NIOSH), Friable Material, Frijoles Mesa Site, From, Front Matter, Front Midship (Nissan), Frontier Mountains (Everquest), Fukai Mori (Japanese song, Inuyasha closing theme), Full Mana, Full Migration, Full Moon, Functional Manager, Functional Module, Funky Monkey (104.9 FM Seattle, WA radio station), Fusion Module
    19) Университет: Fundamental Mathematics
    20) Физиология: Female Male
    22) Вычислительная техника: Frequenz-Modulation, file memory, файловое ЗУ
    23) Нефть: наставление по эксплуатации (field manual), техническое обслуживание в процессе эксплуатации (field maintenance), техническое обслуживание при появлении отказа (failure maintenance), тип отказа (failure mode), характер отказа (failure mode)
    24) Картография: Foreign Mercator
    25) Силикатное производство: fineness modulus
    26) Фирменный знак: Fujitsu Micro
    27) Экология: fish migration
    28) СМИ: Free Movies
    29) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Factory Mutual Engineering Corp., field manager
    30) Полимеры: fair merchantable
    31) Программирование: Fill Mode
    32) Автоматика: flexible manufacturing
    33) Прокат: Flour Milling
    34) Химическое оружие: titanium tetrachloride
    35) Авиационная медицина: muscular fatigue
    36) Макаров: frequency-modulated
    37) Расширение файла: Database (FileMaker Pro)
    38) SAP.тех. функциональный модуль
    40) Электротехника: field meter, frequency modulation
    41) Имена и фамилии: Frank Murphy
    42) Должность: File Man, Film And Music, Floor Mat
    43) НАСА: Flight Module
    44) Единицы измерений: Femto Meter

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > FM

  • 13 Fm

    1) Общая лексика: УКВ радиостанция (термин "радио" означает у водителей средние волны)
    2) Компьютерная техника: Frontend Magic, быстродействующая память (fast memory), быстродействующее запоминающее устройство
    3) Американизм: Farm To Market
    4) Спорт: Flyball Master
    6) Минералогия: fused magnesia
    8) Сельское хозяйство: farmyard manure
    9) Шутливое выражение: Fun Monkey
    10) Страхование: Factory Mutual System
    11) Автомобильный термин: fan motor program in PCM
    12) Грубое выражение: Fucking Magic, Fucking Mercury
    14) Политика: Federated States of Micronesia
    16) Телевидение: frequency generator
    17) Телекоммуникации: Function Management
    18) Сокращение: Fabricaciones Militares (Argentina), Field Manual (USA), Field Marshal (British Army), Flight Mishap (see also FRM), Folding Money, Foreign Minister, Titanium tetrachloride (Chemical warfare smoke mixture), field manual, fire main, fulminate of mercury, manufacturer's responsibility, (Federated States of) Micronesia, FIDE Master (chess), Facial Myokymia, Facility Management, Facility Manager, Facility Map (FAA ARTCC mapping of areas to a facility), Facility Module, Facing Matter, Factory Model, Factory Mutual, Failure Mode, Fairbanks-Morse, Family Medicine, Family Member (AUXMIS), Family Room, Fan Marker, Farm to Market (secondary road, Texas), Fast Messages, Fat Man (atomic bomb), Faulkner Mazda (Pennsylvania), Fault Management, February, March (budget times in Indian states), Fecal Matter, Fecit Monumentum (Latin: Built A Monument, epigraphy), Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, Federated States of Micronesia (US postal abbreviation), Femtometer (10 E^-15, one quadrillionth of a meter), Ferdinand Marcos, Ferromagnetic, Fetal Movement, Fibromyalgia, Fibrosing Mediastinitis, Fibrous Monolith, Field Marshal, File Maintenance, Filio Mater (Latin: Mother to Her Son, epigraphy), Filio Morenti (Latin: To His/Her Dying Son, epigraphy), Filius Matri (Latin: Son to His Mother, epigraphy), Filosofian Maisteri (Finnish: masters degree), Finance Manager, Finance Memorandum, Financial Manager, Financial Minister, Finished Machined, Fire Marshall, Fire Mission, Fireman, Fiscal Management, Fish Meal, Fissile Material, Fleetwood Mac (band), Flight Model, Flogging Molly (band), Floor Manager, Flow Manufacturing, Flow Meter, Flying Monkeys, Follow Me, Font Metrics, Football Manager (computer game), Force Main (civil/hydraulic engineering), Force Majeure (French: Greater Force), Force Management, Force Modernization, Force Module, Forest Management, Formal Method(s), Format, Fort Minor (band), Fort Myers (Florida), Forum Moderator (message boards), Fox Mulder (X-Files character), Franklin Mint, Freaking Magic (polite form), Freddie Mercury (Queen lead singer), Free Market, Frequency Management, Frequency Modulate, Frequency Multiplier (NIOSH), Friable Material, Frijoles Mesa Site, From, Front Matter, Front Midship (Nissan), Frontier Mountains (Everquest), Fukai Mori (Japanese song, Inuyasha closing theme), Full Mana, Full Migration, Full Moon, Functional Manager, Functional Module, Funky Monkey (104.9 FM Seattle, WA radio station), Fusion Module
    19) Университет: Fundamental Mathematics
    20) Физиология: Female Male
    22) Вычислительная техника: Frequenz-Modulation, file memory, файловое ЗУ
    23) Нефть: наставление по эксплуатации (field manual), техническое обслуживание в процессе эксплуатации (field maintenance), техническое обслуживание при появлении отказа (failure maintenance), тип отказа (failure mode), характер отказа (failure mode)
    24) Картография: Foreign Mercator
    25) Силикатное производство: fineness modulus
    26) Фирменный знак: Fujitsu Micro
    27) Экология: fish migration
    28) СМИ: Free Movies
    29) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Factory Mutual Engineering Corp., field manager
    30) Полимеры: fair merchantable
    31) Программирование: Fill Mode
    32) Автоматика: flexible manufacturing
    33) Прокат: Flour Milling
    34) Химическое оружие: titanium tetrachloride
    35) Авиационная медицина: muscular fatigue
    36) Макаров: frequency-modulated
    37) Расширение файла: Database (FileMaker Pro)
    38) SAP.тех. функциональный модуль
    40) Электротехника: field meter, frequency modulation
    41) Имена и фамилии: Frank Murphy
    42) Должность: File Man, Film And Music, Floor Mat
    43) НАСА: Flight Module
    44) Единицы измерений: Femto Meter

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Fm

  • 14 fm

    1) Общая лексика: УКВ радиостанция (термин "радио" означает у водителей средние волны)
    2) Компьютерная техника: Frontend Magic, быстродействующая память (fast memory), быстродействующее запоминающее устройство
    3) Американизм: Farm To Market
    4) Спорт: Flyball Master
    6) Минералогия: fused magnesia
    8) Сельское хозяйство: farmyard manure
    9) Шутливое выражение: Fun Monkey
    10) Страхование: Factory Mutual System
    11) Автомобильный термин: fan motor program in PCM
    12) Грубое выражение: Fucking Magic, Fucking Mercury
    14) Политика: Federated States of Micronesia
    16) Телевидение: frequency generator
    17) Телекоммуникации: Function Management
    18) Сокращение: Fabricaciones Militares (Argentina), Field Manual (USA), Field Marshal (British Army), Flight Mishap (see also FRM), Folding Money, Foreign Minister, Titanium tetrachloride (Chemical warfare smoke mixture), field manual, fire main, fulminate of mercury, manufacturer's responsibility, (Federated States of) Micronesia, FIDE Master (chess), Facial Myokymia, Facility Management, Facility Manager, Facility Map (FAA ARTCC mapping of areas to a facility), Facility Module, Facing Matter, Factory Model, Factory Mutual, Failure Mode, Fairbanks-Morse, Family Medicine, Family Member (AUXMIS), Family Room, Fan Marker, Farm to Market (secondary road, Texas), Fast Messages, Fat Man (atomic bomb), Faulkner Mazda (Pennsylvania), Fault Management, February, March (budget times in Indian states), Fecal Matter, Fecit Monumentum (Latin: Built A Monument, epigraphy), Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, Federated States of Micronesia (US postal abbreviation), Femtometer (10 E^-15, one quadrillionth of a meter), Ferdinand Marcos, Ferromagnetic, Fetal Movement, Fibromyalgia, Fibrosing Mediastinitis, Fibrous Monolith, Field Marshal, File Maintenance, Filio Mater (Latin: Mother to Her Son, epigraphy), Filio Morenti (Latin: To His/Her Dying Son, epigraphy), Filius Matri (Latin: Son to His Mother, epigraphy), Filosofian Maisteri (Finnish: masters degree), Finance Manager, Finance Memorandum, Financial Manager, Financial Minister, Finished Machined, Fire Marshall, Fire Mission, Fireman, Fiscal Management, Fish Meal, Fissile Material, Fleetwood Mac (band), Flight Model, Flogging Molly (band), Floor Manager, Flow Manufacturing, Flow Meter, Flying Monkeys, Follow Me, Font Metrics, Football Manager (computer game), Force Main (civil/hydraulic engineering), Force Majeure (French: Greater Force), Force Management, Force Modernization, Force Module, Forest Management, Formal Method(s), Format, Fort Minor (band), Fort Myers (Florida), Forum Moderator (message boards), Fox Mulder (X-Files character), Franklin Mint, Freaking Magic (polite form), Freddie Mercury (Queen lead singer), Free Market, Frequency Management, Frequency Modulate, Frequency Multiplier (NIOSH), Friable Material, Frijoles Mesa Site, From, Front Matter, Front Midship (Nissan), Frontier Mountains (Everquest), Fukai Mori (Japanese song, Inuyasha closing theme), Full Mana, Full Migration, Full Moon, Functional Manager, Functional Module, Funky Monkey (104.9 FM Seattle, WA radio station), Fusion Module
    19) Университет: Fundamental Mathematics
    20) Физиология: Female Male
    22) Вычислительная техника: Frequenz-Modulation, file memory, файловое ЗУ
    23) Нефть: наставление по эксплуатации (field manual), техническое обслуживание в процессе эксплуатации (field maintenance), техническое обслуживание при появлении отказа (failure maintenance), тип отказа (failure mode), характер отказа (failure mode)
    24) Картография: Foreign Mercator
    25) Силикатное производство: fineness modulus
    26) Фирменный знак: Fujitsu Micro
    27) Экология: fish migration
    28) СМИ: Free Movies
    29) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Factory Mutual Engineering Corp., field manager
    30) Полимеры: fair merchantable
    31) Программирование: Fill Mode
    32) Автоматика: flexible manufacturing
    33) Прокат: Flour Milling
    34) Химическое оружие: titanium tetrachloride
    35) Авиационная медицина: muscular fatigue
    36) Макаров: frequency-modulated
    37) Расширение файла: Database (FileMaker Pro)
    38) SAP.тех. функциональный модуль
    40) Электротехника: field meter, frequency modulation
    41) Имена и фамилии: Frank Murphy
    42) Должность: File Man, Film And Music, Floor Mat
    43) НАСА: Flight Module
    44) Единицы измерений: Femto Meter

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > fm

  • 15 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 16 Logic

       My initial step... was to attempt to reduce the concept of ordering in a sequence to that of logical consequence, so as to proceed from there to the concept of number. To prevent anything intuitive from penetrating here unnoticed, I had to bend every effort to keep the chain of inference free of gaps. In attempting to comply with this requirement in the strictest possible way, I found the inadequacy of language to be an obstacle. (Frege, 1972, p. 104)
       I believe I can make the relation of my 'conceptual notation' to ordinary language clearest if I compare it to the relation of the microscope to the eye. The latter, because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate.... Similarly, this 'conceptual notation' is devised for particular scientific purposes; and therefore one may not condemn it because it is useless for other purposes. (Frege, 1972, pp. 104-105)
       To sum up briefly, it is the business of the logician to conduct an unceasing struggle against psychology and those parts of language and grammar which fail to give untrammeled expression to what is logical. He does not have to answer the question: How does thinking normally take place in human beings? What course does it naturally follow in the human mind? What is natural to one person may well be unnatural to another. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       We are very dependent on external aids in our thinking, and there is no doubt that the language of everyday life-so far, at least, as a certain area of discourse is concerned-had first to be replaced by a more sophisticated instrument, before certain distinctions could be noticed. But so far the academic world has, for the most part, disdained to master this instrument. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       There is no reproach the logician need fear less than the reproach that his way of formulating things is unnatural.... If we were to heed those who object that logic is unnatural, we would run the risk of becoming embroiled in interminable disputes about what is natural, disputes which are quite incapable of being resolved within the province of logic. (Frege, 1979, p. 128)
       [L]inguists will be forced, internally as it were, to come to grips with the results of modern logic. Indeed, this is apparently already happening to some extent. By "logic" is not meant here recursive function-theory, California model-theory, constructive proof-theory, or even axiomatic settheory. Such areas may or may not be useful for linguistics. Rather under "logic" are included our good old friends, the homely locutions "and," "or," "if-then," "if and only if," "not," "for all x," "for some x," and "is identical with," plus the calculus of individuals, event-logic, syntax, denotational semantics, and... various parts of pragmatics.... It is to these that the linguist can most profitably turn for help. These are his tools. And they are "clean tools," to borrow a phrase of the late J. L. Austin in another context, in fact, the only really clean ones we have, so that we might as well use them as much as we can. But they constitute only what may be called "baby logic." Baby logic is to the linguist what "baby mathematics" (in the phrase of Murray Gell-Mann) is to the theoretical physicist-very elementary but indispensable domains of theory in both cases. (Martin, 1969, pp. 261-262)
       There appears to be no branch of deductive inference that requires us to assume the existence of a mental logic in order to do justice to the psychological phenomena. To be logical, an individual requires, not formal rules of inference, but a tacit knowledge of the fundamental semantic principle governing any inference; a deduction is valid provided that there is no way of interpreting the premises correctly that is inconsistent with the conclusion. Logic provides a systematic method for searching for such counter-examples. The empirical evidence suggests that ordinary individuals possess no such methods. (Johnson-Laird, quoted in Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 130)
       The fundamental paradox of logic [that "there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves" (Russell to Frege, 16 June 1902, in van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 125)] is with us still, bequeathed by Russell-by way of philosophy, mathematics, and even computer science-to the whole of twentieth-century thought. Twentieth-century philosophy would begin not with a foundation for logic, as Russell had hoped in 1900, but with the discovery in 1901 that no such foundation can be laid. (Everdell, 1997, p. 184)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logic

  • 17 prime

    prime [praɪm]
    (a) (foremost) premier, primordial; (principal) premier, principal; (fundamental) fondamental;
    one of the prime causes of heart disease une des principales causes des maladies cardiaques;
    our prime concern is to avoid loss of life notre préoccupation principale est d'éviter de faire des victimes;
    of prime importance de la plus haute importance, d'une importance primordiale
    (b) (perfect) parfait; (excellent) excellent;
    in prime condition (person) en parfaite santé; (athlete) en parfaite condition; (car, antique, stamp) en parfait état;
    it's a prime example of what I mean c'est un excellent exemple de ce que je veux dire;
    10 is prime to 11 10 et 11 sont premiers entre eux
    2 noun
    to be in one's prime or in the prime of life être dans la fleur de l'âge;
    the prime of youth la fleur de la jeunesse;
    I'm past my prime je ne suis plus dans la fleur de l'âge;
    these roses look a bit past their prime ces roses sont plutôt défraîchies;
    these curtains look a bit past their prime ces rideaux ont vu des jours meilleurs;
    when Romantic poetry was in its prime lorsque la poésie romantique était à son apogée
    (b) Mathematics (prime number) nombre m premier; (mark) prime f
    (c) (beginning) commencement m
    (d) Religion prime f;
    to say/sing the prime dire/chanter prime;
    archaic at prime à l'aube, au point du jour
    (e) Fencing prime f
    (f) Chemistry atome m simple
    (g) Music son m fondamental
    (a) (gun, machine, pump) amorcer;
    to prime sb with drink faire boire qn;
    familiar he was well primed il était bien parti;
    figurative to prime the pump faire repartir la machine, remettre les choses en route
    (b) (brief → person) mettre au courant;
    to prime sb for a meeting préparer qn à une réunion;
    he is well primed in local politics il est bien renseigné sur la politique locale;
    the witnesses had all been primed by the police les dépositions des témoins leur avaient été suggérées par la police
    (c) (with paint, varnish) apprêter
    Technology (boiler) primer, avoir des projections d'eau
    ►► prime beef bœuf m de première catégorie;
    Finance prime bill papier m commercial de premier ordre;
    Finance prime bond obligation f de premier ordre;
    prime cost prix m de revient;
    prime cut (of meat) morceau m de premier choix;
    Finance prime lending rate taux m de base bancaire;
    prime location site m idéal;
    prime meridian premier méridien m, méridien m origine;
    prime minister Premier ministre m;
    prime ministership, prime ministry fonctions fpl de Premier ministre;
    during her prime ministership pendant qu'elle était Premier ministre;
    prime mover Physics force f motrice; Philosophy cause f première; figurative (person) instigateur(trice) m,f;
    Mathematics prime number nombre m premier;
    prime quality première qualité f;
    Finance prime rate taux m d'escompte bancaire préférentiel, prime rate m;
    American prime rib (UNCOUNT) côte f de bœuf;
    Television prime time heures fpl de grande écoute, prime time m
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie' Spark, Neame 'Le Bel âge de Miss Brodie' (roman), 'Les Belles années de Miss Brodie' (film)

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > prime

  • 18 elementary

    adjective (very simple; not advanced: elementary mathematics.) elemental, básico
    elementary adj elemental
    tr[elɪ'mentərɪ]
    1 (basic) elemental, básico,-a
    2 (easy) fácil, sencillo,-a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    elementary education enseñanza primaria
    elementary particle partícula elemental
    elementary school escuela primaria
    elementary [.ɛlə'mɛntri] adj
    1) simple: elemental, simple, fundamental
    2) : de enseñanza primaria
    adj.
    elemental adj.
    'elə'mentəri, ˌelɪ'mentri
    adjective elemental, básico
    [ˌelɪ'mentǝrɪ]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=basic) [idea, precautions, rules] elemental, básico

    elementary politeness requires that... — la cortesía más elemental requiere que...

    elementary, my dear Watson! — ¡elemental, querido Watson!

    2) (=introductory) [maths, level, exercises] elemental, básico

    elementary reading and writing skillshabilidades fpl de lectura y escritura básicas

    2.
    CPD

    elementary education N(US) enseñanza f primaria

    elementary particle Npartícula f elemental

    elementary school N(US) escuela f de enseñanza primaria

    elementary student N(US) alumno(-a) m / f de (la escuela) primaria

    elementary teacher N(US) maestro(-a) m / f de (enseñanza) primaria

    * * *
    ['elə'mentəri, ˌelɪ'mentri]
    adjective elemental, básico

    English-spanish dictionary > elementary

  • 19 basic

    basic ['beɪsɪk]
    (a) (fundamental → problem, theme) fondamental; (→ aim, belief) principal;
    these things are basic to a good marriage ces choses sont fondamentales ou vitales pour un mariage heureux
    (b) (elementary → rule, skill) élémentaire; (→ knowledge, vocabulary) de base;
    basic English anglais m de base;
    a basic knowledge of Greek une connaissance de base du grec;
    my French is a bit basic mon français est plutôt rudimentaire;
    basic vocabulary vocabulaire m de base;
    I've got the basic idea je vois de quoi il s'agit en gros;
    Mathematics the four basic operations les quatre opérations fpl fondamentales
    (c) (essential) essentiel;
    basic foodstuffs denrées fpl de base;
    the basic necessities of life les besoins mpl vitaux;
    basic precautions précautions fpl élémentaires ou essentielles
    (d) (primitive → furniture, accommodation, skills) rudimentaire;
    their flat is really basic leur appartement est très rudimentaire
    (e) (as a starting point → hours) de base;
    this is the basic model of the car voici la voiture dans son modèle de base
    (f) Chemistry basique
    the basics l'essentiel m;
    let's get down to basics venons-en à l'essentiel;
    I learned the basics of computing j'ai acquis les notions de base en informatique;
    they learned to cook with just the basics ils ont appris à faire la cuisine avec un minimum;
    to get back to basics (important things in life) retourner aux choses essentielles;
    Politics back to basics = expression qui suggère un retour aux valeurs traditionnelles en matière d'éducation ou de moralité, lancée par les Conservateurs comme argument de renouveau politique au début des années 90
    ►► Economics basic commodity denrée f de base;
    Marketing basic consumer goods denrées fpl de consommation courante;
    Insurance basic cover assurance f de garantie de base;
    Finance basic pay salaire m de base;
    British Finance basic rate taux m de base;
    most people are basic rate taxpayers la plupart des gens sont imposés au taux de base;
    British Finance basic salary salaire m de base, traitement m de base;
    Chemistry basic salt sel m basique;
    basic slag scorie f de déphosphoration;
    Finance basic wage salaire m de base

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > basic

  • 20 Poulsen, Valdemar

    [br]
    b. 23 November 1869 Copenhagen, Denmark
    d. 23 July 1942 Gentofte, Denmark
    [br]
    Danish engineer who developed practical magnetic recording and the arc generator for continuous radio waves.
    [br]
    From an early age he was absorbed by phenomena of physics to the exclusion of all other subjects, including mathematics. When choosing his subjects for the final three years in Borgedydskolen in Christianshavn (Copenhagen) before university, he opted for languages and history. At the University of Copenhagen he embarked on the study of medicine in 1889, but broke it off and was apprenticed to the machine firm of A/S Frichs Eftf. in Aarhus. He was employed between 1893 and 1899 as a mechanic and assistant in the laboratory of the Copenhagen Telephone Company KTAS. Eventually he advanced to be Head of the line fault department. This suited his desire for experiment and measurement perfectly. After the invention of the telegraphone in 1898, he left the laboratory and with responsible business people he created Aktieselskabet Telegrafonen, Patent Poulsen in order to develop it further, together with Peder Oluf Pedersen (1874– 1941). Pedersen brought with him the mathematical background which eventually led to his professorship in electronic engineering in 1922.
    The telegraphone was the basis for multinational industrial endeavours after it was demonstrated at the 1900 World's Exhibition in Paris. It must be said that its strength was also its weakness, because the telegraphone was unique in bringing sound recording and reproduction to the telephone field, but the lack of electronic amplifiers delayed its use outside this and the dictation fields (where headphones could be used) until the 1920s. However, commercial interest was great enough to provoke a number of court cases concerning patent infringement, in which Poulsen frequently figured as a witness.
    In 1903–4 Poulsen and Pedersen developed the arc generator for continuous radio waves which was used worldwide for radio transmitters in competition with Marconi's spark-generating system. The inspiration for this work came from the research by William Duddell on the musical arc. Whereas Duddell had proposed the use of the oscillations generated in his electric arc for telegraphy in his 1901 UK patent, Poulsen contributed a chamber of hydrogen and a transverse magnetic field which increased the efficiency remarkably. He filed patent applications on these constructions from 1902 and the first publication in a scientific forum took place at the International Electrical Congress in St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.
    In order to use continuous waves efficiently (the high frequency constituted a carrier), Poulsen developed both a modulator for telegraphy and a detector for the carrier wave. The modulator was such that even the more primitive spark-communication receivers could be used. Later Poulsen and Pedersen developed frequency-shift keying.
    The Amalgamated Radio-Telegraph Company Ltd was launched in London in 1906, combining the developments of Poulsen and those of De Forest Wireless Telegraph Syndicate. Poulsen contributed his English and American patents. When this company was liquidated in 1908, its assets were taken over by Det Kontinentale Syndikat for Poulsen Radio Telegrafi, A/S in Copenhagen (liquidated 1930–1). Some of the patents had been sold to C.Lorenz AG in Berlin, which was very active.
    The arc transmitting system was in use worldwide from about 1910 to 1925, and the power increased from 12 kW to 1,000 kW. In 1921 an exceptional transmitter rated at 1,800 kW was erected on Java for communications with the Netherlands. More than one thousand installations had been in use worldwide. The competing systems were initially spark transmitters (Marconi) and later rotary converters ( Westinghouse). Similar power was available from valve transmitters only much later.
    From c. 1912 Poulsen did not contribute actively to further development. He led a life as a well-respected engineer and scientist and served on several committees. He had his private laboratory and made experiments in the composition of matter and certain resonance phenomena; however, nothing was published. It has recently been suggested that Poulsen could not have been unaware of Oberlin Smith's work and publication in 1888, but his extreme honesty in technical matters indicates that his development was indeed independent. In the case of the arc generator, Poulsen was always extremely frank about the inspiration he gained from earlier developers' work.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1899, British patent no. 8,961 (the first British telegraphone patent). 1903, British patent no. 15,599 (the first British arc-genera tor patent).
    His scientific publications are few, but fundamental accounts of his contribution are: 1900, "Das Telegraphon", Ann. d. Physik 3:754–60; 1904, "System for producing continuous oscillations", Trans. Int. El. Congr. St. Louis, Vol. II, pp. 963–71.
    Further Reading
    A.Larsen, 1950, Telegrafonen og den Traadløse, Ingeniørvidenskabelige Skrifter no. 2, Copenhagen (provides a very complete, although somewhat confusing, account of Poulsen's contributions; a list of his patents is given on pp. 285–93).
    F.K.Engel, 1990, Documents on the Invention of Magnetic Re cor ding in 1878, New York: Audio Engineering Society, reprint no. 2,914 (G2) (it is here that doubt is expressed about whether Poulsen's ideas were developed independently).
    GB-N

    Biographical history of technology > Poulsen, Valdemar

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